What are particularities of investigative reporting? How to differentiate investigative reporting from "standard" reporting? What is the role of an investigative reporter? How was investigative reporting created and how did it develop?

The question WHAT IS INVESTIGATIVE REPORTING is still a cause of debate even among journalists-practitians, as well as media theoreticians.

One side is convinced that INVESTIGATIVE REPORTING is the peak of the reporting skill, and consider the investigative reporters special kinds of journalists.

Others consider INVESTIGATIVE REPORTING to be simply a trendy title, just another way of marking the old, good, thorough journalism, which was unfathomable without constant running after the news, and without "peeling off the soles of their shoes" all day long.

One of the most important skills of a good reporter is the ability to simply, convincingly, and clearly explain what he/she wants to say. A good way to do so is by comparing with generally known information or everyday situations.   If we would use this method to demonstrate what investigative reporting is, we could use, for example, police work as a comparison. 

Investigative reporters, as forensic criminologists, determine what has happened according to the existing «evidence», and very often predict what is going to happen. However, they are not clairvoyants. Their powers are not supernatural, but they come from the fact that they know how to use special skills and methods. Just like forensic criminologists, they know how to "read the evidence".  

What is investigative reporting?

What are particularities of investigative reporting? How to differentiate investigative reporting from "standard" reporting, and can that difference be clearly defined? What is the role of an investigative reporter? Who is an investigative editor? How was investigative reporting created and how did it develop? What is the role of investigative reporting today? This text makes no pretence to answer to all of these questions, but only to give the basic information on investigative reporting that might inspire you to learn something more. 

1. INVESTIGATIVE REPORTING - A NECESSITY OR A MYTH?
The question WHAT IS INVESTIGATIVE REPORTING is still a cause of debate even among journalists-practitians, as well as media theoreticians.

One side is convinced that INVESTIGATIVE REPORTING is the peak of the reporting skill, and consider the investigative reporters special kinds of journalists.

Others consider INVESTIGATIVE REPORTING to be simply a trendy title, just another way of marking the old, good, thorough journalism, which was unfathomable without constant running after the news, and without "peeling off the soles of their shoes" all day long.

Therefore, is there such a thing as investigative reporting?

If there is, how does it differ from the "standard" form of reporting?

Simply good reporting, or more than that?

Investigative reporting definitely exists both as a hypothetical category and in practice.

Although it is undeniable that investigative reporting is basically good quality reporting, it has it's own particularities.

The name itself points to research, to a deeper, more analytical attitude towards the news, a topic, a phenomenon or a person.

We will try to explain what makes investigative reporting special by reminding you of an eternal dilemma:• is the role of a reporter simply to neutrally transfer the information from source to addressee, or should journalism, based on solid professional, ethical and moral criteria, try to explain and "fix" reality?

Utterly simplified, we could say that "standard" reporting is a transfer of information, while investigative reporting is "digging" under the surface. It is not an accident that the title of one of the best handbooks for investigative reporting is "Aim high, dig deep" by Lucinda Fleeson.  

An investigative reporter "reads evidence"   

One of the most important skills of a good reporter is the ability to simply, convincingly, and clearly explain what he/she wants to say. A good way to do so is by comparing with generally known information or everyday situations.  If we would use this method to demonstrate what investigative reporting is, we could use, for example, police work as a comparison. Many reporters are like police officers: they regularly monitor the situation in their areas of responsibility and they react if something happens (so called beat reporters).  In some cases police officers provide protection if needed and they also guard the crime scene, so that the witnesses do not remain unknown, and in order for the evidence not to be destroyed. If all the financial and organizational conditions allow it, this is performed by specially trained police officers.  The work of a reporter is the same. Most reporters react to events in the way that they report about them. Those reporters who have a special skill in certain areas are specifically assigned to monitor the area of their expertise.  Investigative reporters, as forensic criminologists, determine what has happened according to the existing «evidence», and very often predict what is going to happen.

However, they are not clairvoyants. Their powers are not supernatural, but they come from the fact that they know how to use special skills and methods. Just like forensic criminologists, they know how to "read evidence".  

2. The definition of investigative reportingIs there a unique definition of investigative reporting?  

No there is not. Media theoreticians, as well as reporters and editors who tried to write on this subject in accordance with their experience, have different approaches when it comes to attempting to define investigative reporting. Here are some of the common definitions:  

• Investigative reporting is one of the hardest jobs of a reporter. It demands a lot of time and effort. At the same time it is exciting, interesting and rewarding. 

• Investigative reporting is nothing else but exposing something that certain persons, companies or government agencies do not want the public to know. 

• Investigative reporting enables setting right the injustices. It is based on the conviction that the editors, reporters and photo reporters can improve human rights and set the injustices right. (David Everett, Detroit Free Press)

• It is essential for the investigation to be performed by the reporter himself/herself, and not for the reporting to be based on the results of someone else's work and effort.

• The story must speak about something that is interesting for the readers, viewers or listeners; it must be about something that concerns them and their everyday life.

• It is important to expose information that someone is trying to hide from the public.  (IRE/Investigative Reporters and Editors Handbook)

• An investigative story must contain the original work of the reporter, not just the retelling of someone else's discoveries. • An investigative story must point out the problems of a system, not simply an individual case.

• An investigative story must explain complex social issues, expose corruption, bad behavior and abuse of power. (Lucinda Fleeson, Aim high, dig deep)

• There are three levels of reporting. At the first, passive level the reporter reports on a public event and on something that has been said there.

• At the second level the reporter tries to explain or interpret what has happened or what has been said.  • At the third level the reporter investigates the evidence on what has been said. In another words, reporting can be general, specialized or investigative.

• Investigative reporting tries to report on information that someone is trying to hide. An investigative reporter does not only search for common, non-controversial informants, but searches for those who know disturbing secrets, and are angry or upset enough to disclose them.  (David Spark: Investigative Reporting - A study in technique: Focal Press / Linacre House - Oxford, Great Britain, 1999.)

Are there features of investigative reporting on which all reporters agree?
Yes, there are.

In spite of different approaches some elements are unavoidable in attempting to define the term investigative reporting. Therefore, as the most common definition we use a combination of different authors' ideas according to which (no matter what type of mass media we are talking about) the investigative story: • must be founded on the original investigative work of a reporter, • must expose information that an individual person, organization or government body is trying to hide from public knowledge, • point out to the problem of public interest with arguments.

3. Is every reporter an investigative reporter? 

This is one more question to which reporters themselves do not have a unanimous answer.  Eleven experienced reporters, members of "Investigative Reporters and Editors Inc." (IRA) tried to answer this question by checking three different statements: 

• Every reporter is an investigative reporter

• Every reporter should be an investigative reporter• Every reporter can be an investigative reporter

It would be great if every reporter could be an investigative reporter, but unfortunately that is not true. Most of the reporters are not investigative reporters for numerous objective reasons. However, is it wise to say that every reporter should be an investigative reporter? Some reporters have to report on pets, savings of energy, etc. Therefore, every reporter can be an investigative reporter. There is nothing unusual about that. One only needs to be curious and have a need to know if the world is good or bad.  (Steve Weinberg, The Reporter's Handbook - Bedford/St. Martin's, Boston-New York, 1996.)

Reporters who daily write or prepare radio and TV stories on pets or saving of energy can be investigative reporters. 

In order for a story to satisfy investigative reporting criteria, it has to deal with a topic that is important not only for one person or close circle of people, but it has to be a result of research conducted by a reporter who investigated the subject, exposing information that someone tried to hide. 

It is not crucial for the value of a story that a reporter's subject is corruption of a popular politician, or embezzlement in a local utility company.

A reporter reporting on pets can do so through, for example, stories on unusual pets, stories on people who dedicated their lives to animals or advice stories on how to buy a pet and take care of it. Such stories can be an excellent journalistic accomplishment but they are certainly not investigative reporting. 

If the same reporter investigates ways of purchasing exotic pets from the foreign countries, and discovers and documents incidents of animal smuggling, animal abuse, corruption of customs officers, etc. that reporter has created an investigative story. 
Therefore, every reporter can be investigative reporter, but only few are investigative reporters all the time.

4. The investigativa editor - a dancer on the string

Investigative reporting requires knowledge, skill, effort, but also time and money. 

Why are money and time so important for investigative reporting?

If you want to investigate something that has purposely been hidden or you are seriously investigating something that no one has showed interest in, it is essential that you have more time than for a usual story. 

The reason is the same as in the case of research of any kind: it is necessary sometimes to observe and check for a long time in order to notice and later on prove something that is otherwise hard to see or explain something that seemed completely confusing.

The longer the investigation takes, the higher the costs.

Hypothetically, it is possible to make a good investigative story in a short period of time and with low costs, but that is an exception to the rule, not the rule at all.

Time and money are especially important limiting elements because reporters do not have any influence over them.

A reporter can be highly educated, intelligent, literate, and skillful with all journalistic methods and available technical devices.

He/she can also be an expert on specific subjects, but if a reporter does not  have enough time and money he/she will not be able to write a good quality investigative story. 

There are only a few freelance reporters who chose to go into investigative reporting, working independently, selling stories to interested mass media, due to great expenses and required time. 

For the same reason many editing offices and even many mass media centers do not employ journalists who would only do investigative reporting.

Only few editorial offices hire journalists whose main job is investigative reporting.

Also, rare are the publishers that can afford full-time teams to do investigative reporting.

If publishers, who can afford investigative reporters, want this business to be profitable for them, they have to be ready for one more expense - an investigative editor.

As every editor, an investigative editor should be an experienced journalist-reporter who works on subjects that are of interest to journalists-members of his team - that is investigative subjects. 

But that actually means that an investigative editor should have all the characteristics decisive for the success of any editor specialized for a specific type of subject, because the investigative subject can be on culture, politics, crime, ecology, ballet, etc.

Is that realistically possible?

The proof that it is possible is one of the most successful investigative reporting editors, David Boardman (dboardman@seattletimes.com) who won numerous journalistic rewards with his research team.

With his research team from „The Seattle Times" he won the Pulitzer Prize several times, the most respectful journalistic praise to be awarded in the world, comparable with the Nobel Prize for achievements in science.

Along with publishing investigative stories in regular issues of « The Seattle Times» he occasionally prepares special issues of big investigative stories or issues, which compile all stories from a series of investigative articles dealing with specific problems.

By making a list of characteristics required for a successful editor, David Boardman affirms that an editor, if he/she wants to be successful, must take over many, sometimes contradictory roles. 

Among others, Boardman explains, a successful editor has to be in his office: reporter, educator, teacher, student, psychiatrist, conductor, reader, librarian, diplomat, photo editor, graphical editor, defense attorney, prosecutor, humorist, confessor, etc. (Handbook:  20 HATS OF AN EFFECTIVE EDITOR)

A successful investigative editor also has to be a "long term" strategist and pragmatist/ tactician who has a clear plan, but know in every moment what to do if the plan is not coming to a close.

Work on an investigative story can be extremely frustrating. After long and hard work on a subject you can discover that you cannot make a story as you planned.

David Boardman's advice is: make an editorial plan of the whole project, constantly control it's results and possibilities, and do not hesitate to change the plan, even to drop the story if the analysis shows that you cannot control time, expenses or the story itself. Boardman prepared series of advice on how to imagine, develop and "launch" a successful investigative story (David Boardman; Birthing the Big Project)

5. Short history of investigative reporting 

A) How did it begin?
The beginning of investigative reporting is tied to the USA, where key events for development of investigative reporting happened; events like the foundation of the first organization that gathered investigative reporters and editors (IRE), then, the Watergate affair in which "Washington Post", by publishing information on wiretapping of political opponents forced president Richard Nixon to resign. 

Both foundation of IRE and "Watergate" affair happened some 30 years ago, while roots of investigative reporting go much deeper, to the beginning of 20th century.

Already in 19th century the political and judicial practice in the USA spread freedom of public speech, therefore freedom of press. With the arrival of new immigrants and enabling women to vote, the newspaper gained a greater role during elections. That meant a huge increase in public opinion.   

The messages of populism, a movement that started at the end of 19th century, inspired by the economic situation and efforts to help the middle class, farmers, and small industrial workers and merchants, spread with the help of a newspaper that supported populist's goals  on the South and Middle West. (prof. dr. Josip Kregar, Značaj istraživačkog novinarstva za razvoj demokratskog društva / Importance of investigative reporting for development of democratic society - Zagreb 2001.)

Spokespersons for the movement were reporters of a new kind. The group of reporters, connected by a  sense of purpose, polemically and sensationally exposed the examples of the abuse of wealth and political power, political corruption and illegal doings. From 1902 to 1920's they published more than a thousand articles on big companies and political corruption.   (E. Foner, J.A. Garraty; The Readers Companion to American History - Boston, Houghton Miflin 1991.)

That group of reporters exposed corruption in the big cities such as Chicago, St. Louis, Minneapolis, San Francisco, etc. while their target were also big companies, such as the oil conglomerate, Standard Oil. 

Their characteristics were a high level of social responsibility, their style by which they arose the emotions of the public, their skill of writing, and their unhidden ambition to become the society's consciousness.

Those were very talented reporters with high literary ambitions. Some of them are known in history as successful writers, but nobody but their contemporaries ever heard that they were journalists as well, especially that they are the founders of investigative reporting. 

In this group of journalists are, for example, famous novelists Theodore Dreiser and Jack London.

When it was noted that a sharp critic of capricious rich people and politicians attracts the attention of the audience, publishers continued to encourage reporters to work on investigative reporting. The newspaper did not just report the news anymore; it created the news. 

Publishers paid high amounts to the reporters who were able to create the news and get the readers interested so that they would impatiently wait for the next story. They were giving them enough time to prepare themselves and to choose their topics as they would. Ordering the articles became an exception. 

There was no public person who could avoid supervision and press critique, no matter how rich or politically powerful that person was. Newspapers that used the opportunities of investigative reporting kept gaining new readers all the time.

And those newspapers that did not do so at the beginning had to start. Very often, the goal of their publisher was no longer to gain new readers, but to keep the existing ones. 

8) Risks of journalism "Going wild"

Investigative reporting carries different types of risks. The main risk is the possibility of abuse and mass manipulation. Even in the early history of investigative reporting, there were series of abuses and manipulations.

The populist style of writing and spreading opinion that every critic or accusation published in a spectacular way is justified and unquestionable, enabled the appearance of stereotype cases

Except for earlier targets, mostly capitalists, in many texts from the beginning of 20th century, an explicitly negative role was given to the immigrants in the USA (Irish, Slavs, Jews, etc.) Such an attitude was justified by pointing out a supposed conspiracy against honesty, innocence and American moral. 

Conspiracy theory was easily accepted by the public. One of the best examples of deadly influence of such "investigative" journalism is famous "Sacco and Vanzetti" case. 

Two Italian immigrants, a carpenter Nicola Sacco and a fish merchant Bartolome Vanzetti were sentenced to death and in August 1927 were executed, although the evidence that they had committed the murder for which they had been charged was never presented to the court. 

A huge role in creating the euphoria about the trial and encouraging a conspiracy theory was played by the newspaper that published articles which convicted the accused just because they were the poor immigrants who did not speak English very well. 
Journalism that encourages intolerance, xenophobia, chauvinism, and violence by abusing existing stereotypes and by creating the new ones is not investigative reporting. That kind of journalism is not even journalism, because it does not compile with even basic criterion: to neutrally pass information from the source to the reader, listener or viewer.  

Dr. Henry Lee, forensic pathologist, 74 years after their execution warned about the deadly effect of sensational "investigative" reporting which contributed to the public conviction of the poor immigrants in the "Sacco and Vanzetti" case, much before the evidence were presented to the court.  

The subsequent investigation conducted by Dr. Lee, a famous American forensic pathologist, the most appreciated criminologist of today, showed that in this case, as in some other famous court cases from the past, the court was wrong because there was no liberating evidence.  

In all of these cases, court decisions in question were in accordance with the public attitude that arose from frenzied repetition of stereotypes in "investigative" stories. 

Mass media were the first ones to convict without the evidence, and then the courts did the same thing.    (Povratak na mjesto zločina / Return to the crime scene; Dr. Henry Lee i dr. Jerry Labriola/2001.Prijevod na hrvatski / Translation to Croatian- Nakladni zavod Matice Hrvatske, 2002.)

C) You can kill the reporter, but you can not kill the story

Investigative reporters even contributed to one of the presidents of the USA resigning from office. 
Richard Nixon resigned in 1974, after the affair of wiretapping of political opponents in which some of his close associates were involved. 

The case was initiated by the investigating team of the daily "Washington Post", and other media joined in.

That was the case when series of investigative stories really exposed both the scandal and the attempt of the government to cover up the scandal.

Due to the fact that this affair, known as "Watergate", "brought down" a president it is remembered as one of the most important successes of the investigative team.

Modern investigative reporting did not start with the "Watergate" affair, but that case created a legend of investigative reporter as the American hero, and many editorial offices organized investigative teams.

This sudden popularity of investigative reporting reminded us again of all the risks which threaten to turn serious, analytical, and documented journalism into its opposite.

• After the "Watergate" affair investigative reporting went wild. Everything became a target and everybody could be attacked. It started the opinion that the investigative story that did not cause somebody's resignation is not a good enough story. If you cannot put somebody in the jail, forget the story - is the superficial description by Leslie L. Zaitz, investigative reporter for the paper "The Oregonian" from Portland.  

A year after "Watergate", in 1975, a group of reporters founded the organization Investigative Reporters and Editors Inc. (IRE), which operates to date.

The first big joint action that launched IRE happened in 1976, when Don Bolles, reporter of "Arizona Republic" and one of the founders of IRE got killed.

Bolles was eliminated while investigating political corruption and organized crime in Arizona, which resulted in the involvement of IRE's team of volunteers.

Reporters from 27 newspaper, radio and TV stations continued Bolles' investigation throughout Arizona. The result was 23 published stories on corruption and crime. 

That was the first time that the saying: "You can kill the reporter, but you cannot kill the story" was ever used.
Headquarter of IRE is University of Missouri School of Journalism since 1978.

For years now IRE (www.ire.org), together with the American, gathers reporters, editors, lecturers, educators and students from all over the world. 

By the example set by IRE, many other countries have founded organizations of investigative reporters. Their members exchange information and work together on the stories.

In May 2003, in Copenhagen, at 2. World Conference of Investigative reporting officially was founded The Global Network of Investigative reporting, to which all national, regional, and continental organizations of investigative reporters were invited.(www.globalinvestigativejournalism.org)

Although history of investigative reporting started in the newspaper, for a long while now, it is not a privilege of the printed media. Radio and TV reporters today also make successful investigative texts by using features of electronic media, while there are journalists who publish their texts only on the Internet.